Alexander Dugin is well known for his ambition to marry politics with religious eschatology. The article analyzes the sources of his concepts revealing the eschatological roots of contemporary conspiracy. Dugin refers to a "world plot" and an "eternal enemy" behind it, which is directly related to the narrative of Antichrist. The author shows how and why such constructions invariably arrive to esoteric and conspiratory anti-Semitism. This ideology looks at an "occult metaphysical war" between Christianity and Judaism, and rejects the modern world for the sake of a "conservative revolution". A special emphasis is made on the Dugin's esoteric and geopolitical views of "sacred history". Dugin's methodology is based on the essentialist view of "race" and "ethnos", ignoring empirical evidences and creating a pseudo-scholarly ground for contemporary xenophobia in the shape of a "new (cultural) racism".
Key words: eschatology, traditionalism, conspiracy, geopolitics, fundamentalism, Jews, Alexander Dugin.
The shift from eschatology to conspiracy theory as a feature of modernity
As is well known, apocalyptic events are what eschatologists fear and inevitably expect. Once an American political research project was supported by the Russian Science Foundation grant No. 15-18-00143.
Shnirelman V. Alexander Dugin: vozrozhdenie mosta mezhdu eschatologii i konspirologii [Alexander Dugin: the construction of a bridge between eschatology and Conspiracy]. Gosudarstvo, religiya, tserkva v Rossii i za rubezhom [State, Religion, Church in Russia and Abroad]. 2016. N 4. pp. 194-221.
Shnirelman, Victor (2016) "Alexander Dugin: Building a Bridge between Eschatology and Conspiracy", Gosudarstvo, religiia, tserkov' v Rossii i za rubezhom 34(4): 194-221.
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tologue Richard Hofstadter noted that modern conspiracy theorists have an apocalyptic style of thinking.1 Renowned conspiracy researcher Michael Barkan even writes about "improvisational millennialism", emphasizing the connection with one of the main directions of modern eschatology2. Therefore, it is not surprising that a significant proportion of conspiracy theorists are Christian fundamentalists who share extremely conservative views.
Indeed, the decline of religiosity, the erosion of traditional culture, the disappearance of the old hierarchy, the desire to achieve social justice on Earth, not in Heaven, the dream of human unity even to the point of uniting under the flag of a single planetary religion-did not all this remind us of the "mystery of lawlessness" mentioned in the Apocalypse? And the active participation of Jews in the struggle for democracy and in social revolutions-did not this mean preparing for the coming of the Antichrist? And if revolutions and social movements combined the most diverse forces, and European monarchies collapsed one after another - did not this reveal itself as an "invisible hand" or "world backstage", dreaming of achieving world domination?
It was precisely these questions that were raised by those whose efforts conspiracy theory emerged and eventually began to develop rapidly.3 As Daniel Pipes noted, it is characterized by a reinterpretation of the image of the enemy according to the era and a mixture of various phobias, but with a striking constancy of features attributed to the enemy. According to him, we are talking about changing the ideology without changing the way of thinking.4 In other words, conspiracy theory has become a secularized version of the" Apocalypse", preserving many of the ideas about it that have developed over the centuries in line with the Christian worldview.5
1. Hofstadter, R. (1965) The Paranoid Style in American Politics and Other Essays, pp. 29-30. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
2. Barkun, M. (2003) A Culture of Conspiracy: Apocalyptic Visions in Contemporary America, p. XI. Berkeley: University of California Press.
3. Biberstein J. R. background. The Myth of the Conspiracy: Philosophers, Freemasons, Jews, Liberals and Socialists as Conspirators, St. Petersburg: Novikov Publishing House, 2010.
4. Pipes D. Zagovor: maniya posledeniya v umakh politikov [Conspiracy: Persecution Mania in the minds of politicians]. Moscow: Novy Khronograf, 2008, pp. 188-206, 222-223.
5. Hagemeister, M. (2006) "The Protocols of the Elders of Zion and the Myth of a Jewish Conspiracy in Post-Soviet Russia", in Nationalist Myths and Modern Media: Contested Identities in the Age of Globalization, pp. 249-252. London: I.B. Tauris.
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However, if early conspiracy theory actively exploited the theme of the apocalypse, even in the form of allusions, then over time traces of religion were preserved in it in a hidden form. The idea of a "Jewish conspiracy" lasted the longest, but then many Western conspiracy theorists abandoned it. Therefore, it is difficult to find direct references to eschatology in them. However, they retained the idea of the "Masonic threat", which often serves as a euphemism for the same Jews. Many American conspiracy theorists have rejected the idea of a" Jewish conspiracy "for a different reason - after all, the evangelical faith widespread in the United States respects Jews as the" chosen people", which excludes anti-Semitic constructions. On the contrary, there is a popular negative image of Russia as a country where Jews/Jews have long experienced all sorts of persecution. It is from there that many American evangelicals expect the invasion of the"Gog people." 6
In other words, being a native daughter of eschatology, conspiracy theory is increasingly burdened by this relationship and tries to distance itself from it. But in Russian conspiracy theory, this is difficult, and the relationship between them is sometimes even emphasized. This area has developed a certain theme with a whole set of ideologemes reflecting fears about secret societies and sinister plots allegedly directed against Russia. The impetus for this was given by acquaintance with the works of Western conspiracy theorists, which over the past 20-25 years have been actively translated and published in Russia7. At the same time, Russian conspiracy theorists are not yet ready to abandon their previous ideas, and the "Jewish conspiracy" still excites the imagination of many of them. Most of all, this is inherent in the works of Alexander Gelyevich Dugin, which deserves a special analysis, and this article is devoted to it.
Dugin and Conspiracy Theory
Alexander Dugin is a bright personality against the dim background of the modern Russian political elite, and his views have often become clear.-
6. Halsell, G. (1986) Prophecy and Politics: Militant Evangelists on the Road to Nuclear War. Westport (Conn.): Lawrence Hill.
7. Shnirelman V. A. Inostrannye agenty: zapadnye istochniki sovremennoi russkoy konspirologii [Foreign Agents: Western sources of modern Russian conspiracy Theory]. 2015. N 4. pp. 110-136; Shnirelman V. A. Konspirologiya i okultnye sily [Conspiracy theory and occult forces]. 2016. N 1. pp. 220-240.
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were the subject of analysis. Most authors emphasized his fascism sympathies, 8 others emphasized his Eurasian leanings, 9 others drew attention to his geopolitical ideas, 10 others did not deny his fascist leanings, but pointed out his obvious affinity for the European New Right, 11 others focused on his esoteric views, 12 finally, the sixth tried to analyze all these aspects his many-sided nature combined 13. Meanwhile, another side of his interests related to conspiracy theory remained in the shadows. He was particularly interested in it in the late 1980s and early 1990s, and then corrected his views for 10-15 years.
Some authors, even realizing the inconsistencies of conspiracy theory, nevertheless uncritically present various conspiracy concepts, and sometimes even try to apply them to the Russian reality. Sometimes these authors
8. Lux L. "The Third Way" or back to the "Third Reich"? On the "Neo-Eurasian "group" Elements " / / Voprosy filosofii. 2000. N 5; Umland A. Formation of the fascist "Neo-Eurasian" movement in Russia: the path of Alexander Dugin from marginal extremist to ideologist of the post-Soviet academic and political elite, 1989-2001. 2003. N 3. pp. 289-304; Umland A. Pathological tendencies in Russian "neo-Eurasianism". O znachenie vzleta Aleksandra Dugina dlya interpretatsii obshchestvennoi zhizni sovremennoi Rossii [On the significance of Alexander Dugin's take-off for the interpretation of public life in modern Russia]. 2009. N 2. pp. 127-141; Umland A." Eurasian projects " of Putin and Dugin-similarities and differences: on the origins and role of right-wing extremist intellectualism in neo-authoritarian Russia // Forum of the newest Eastern European history and Culture. 2012. N 2.pp. 401-407; Moroz E. S. Evraziyskie metamorphozi: ot russkoy emigratsii k rossiiskoi elite [Eurasian Metamorphoses: from Russian emigration to the Russian elite]. 2010. N 1. С. 29-43; Mathyl, M. (2003) "The National-Bolshevik Party and Arctogaia: Two Neo-fascist Groupuscules in the Post-Soviet Political Space", Patterns of Prejudice 36(3): 62-76.
9. Bassin, M. (2008) "Eurasianism ‘Classical' and ‘Neo': the Lines of Continuity", Slavic Eurasian Studies 17: 249-294.
10. Dunlop, J.D. (2001) "Aleksandr Dugin's ‘Neo-Eurasian' Textbook and Dmitrii Trenin's Ambivalent Response", Harvard Ukrainian Studies 25(1-2): 91-121; Ingram, A. (2001) "Alexander Dugin: Geopolitics and Neo-Fascism in Post-Soviet Russia", Political Geography 20: 1029-1051; Видеркер Ш. "Continent of Eurasia": classic Eurasianism and geopolitics as presented by Alexander Dugin / / Forum of the newest Eastern European History and Culture. 2010. N 1. pp. 5-14.
11. Shekhovtsov A. Palingenetic project of neo-Eurasianism: ideas of revival in the worldview of Alexander Dugin / / Forum of the newest Eastern European history and culture. 2009. N 2. pp. 105-126.
12. Sedgwick M. Naperekor sovremennomu miru: Traditsionalizm i taynaya intellektual'naia istoriya XX veka [Against the modern world: Traditionalism and secret intellectual history of the twentieth century]. Moscow: NLO, 2014, pp. 375-414.
13. Laruelle, M. (2008) Russian Eurasianism: an Ideology of Empire, pp. 107-144. Washington D. C.: Woodrow Wilson Center Press.
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they are justified by the fact that they have chosen such an unusual form for presenting some non-trivial concepts that otherwise could not have been communicated to the general public. Dugin uses this technique 14.
An analysis of such works makes it possible to see a trick in all this, because their authors are so caught up in a passionate desire to discover the secret springs of world processes that the reader does not take the justifications written in hindsight seriously, especially since no deep analysis of the constructions considered is given. Trying to formally distance themselves from conspiracy theory and even allowing its criticism, such authors blindly repeat all the main arguments of conspiracy theorists.15 Moreover, many conspiracy concepts have a pronounced nationalistic character, and different national concepts, by definition, cannot come to an agreement. All this may surprise some readers, but it does not bother conspiracy theorists, because they appeal not to reason, but to emotions and faith. Therefore, they are unscrupulous in facts and do not disdain fakes 16.
The plot itself is not a fiction. In the history of many countries, a variety of conspiracies are known, pursuing different goals. But conspiracy theory does not deal with private conspiracies, but with a truly global conspiracy designed to introduce a "new world order" and establish the power of a "world government" 17.
However, if Dugin, who shares this approach, sees in conspiracy theory a sharp break with religious dogmas that occurred during the Enlightenment, 18 then, in my opinion, there is much more-
14. Dugin A. G. Konspirologiya (nauka o zagovorakh, sekretnykh obshchestvakh i tainoy voynoy) [Conspiracy theory (science of conspiracies, secret societies and secret war)]. Moscow: Evraziya, 2005, pp. 13-14.
15. See for example: Vinogradov A. E. Secret battles of the XX century. Moscow: Olma-press, 1999. pp. 383-391; Nemirovsky V. G. Secret societies and conspirators. St. Petersburg: Peter, 2007; Martinez Otero L. M. Illuminati. Trap and Conspiracy, St. Petersburg: Evraziya Publ., 2008.
16. For a list of such fakes, see: Bagdasaryan V. E. "Conspiracy Theory" in Russian historiography of the second half of the XIX-XX centuries. Moscow: Signal, 1999, pp. 54, 75-76, 81-82.
17.J. Entin Teorii zagovorov i konspirativistskiy mentalitet [Conspiracy theories and conspiratorial mentality]. 2000. N 1. P. 70; Hagemeister M. The myth of the conspiracy against Russia / / Myths and mythology in modern Russia. Moscow: Friedrich Naumann Foundation, 2003. p. 86.
18. Dugin A. G. Konspirology (the science of conspiracies, secret societies and secret war). pp. 22-23.
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On the contrary, there is no reason to believe that conspiracy theory is an attempt to fraudulently smuggle and preserve these dogmas, even in a modified form, into the "age of reason."19 And Dugin himself writes about the "sacred background of conspiracy theory." And, indeed, conspiracy schemes with iron consistency paint the purpose of the conspiracy exactly as it is presented in the endless interpretations of the"Apocalypse". For example, Dugin's favorite thinker, Rene Guenon, wrote directly about the proximity of the time of the Antichrist, and Dugin, of course, noted this. Moreover, he claims that Guenon allegedly believed in the origin of the Antichrist from the "tribe of Dan" and concluded from this about the sinister role of the Jews of the diaspora, allegedly striving to build an "Earthly Hell" 20. In turn, another of his favorite authors, Miguel Serrano, believed in a world conspiracy of Freemasons and Jews and argued that Jews were doing everything possible to undermine the traditional world order in order to put the Antichrist on the throne. 21
Some conspiracy theorists, including Dugin [22], recognize the genealogy of their ideas, which go back to thinking about the "last times". Moreover, Dugin, who considers himself a "traditionalist," has more transparent and explicit eschatological motives than many other Russian conspiracy theorists. In his book, the Devil, the "Prince of this World," the Antichrist, and his "agents"are easily found.
Most modern Russian conspiracy theorists rely on the work of their American predecessors and teachers. But Dugin relies primarily on the European conspiracy tradition, which gives his designs a touch of "originality" in comparison with his domestic associates.
The "conspiracy theory" that grew out of arguments about the "last times" was reflected in TV shows and publications in which Dugin took an active part. 23
19.J. Entin Conspiracy theories and conspiratorial mentality, pp. 69-81.
20. Дугин А. Г. Конспирология (наука о заговорах, секретных обществах и тайной войне). С. 73-74, 78-79.
21. Goodrick-Clarke, N. (2002) Black Sun. Aryan Cults, Esoteric Nazism and the Politics of Identity, p. 185 New York: New York University Press, 2002.
22. Дугин А. Г. Конспирология (наука о заговорах, секретных обществах и тайной войне). С. 5, 115-116.
23. In 1993, together with the Orthodox mystic Yuri Vorobyevsky, he participated in the TV program "The Secret of the Century", where they frightened the audience with a world conspiracy,
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at the same time, in different years, he declared himself a member of the "Black Order of the SS", then an esoteric, then an Old Believer, then a Eurasian, then a political scientist, then a sociologist.24
About Dugin's methods
When discussing conspiracy theory, Dugin resorted to psychoanalytic concepts ("unconscious archetypes", "collective unconscious", "unconscious energies"), without relying on public surveys, without talking to people, without taking interviews, in short, without conducting any sociological research. He argued about the "archaism of certain strata of the people", without actually knowing anything about these "strata" or about the "people". His ideal was "orthodox religious mystics", and it is with them, first of all, with their written texts, and not with the people, that most of his arguments about conspiracy are connected. Thus, he made a methodological error characteristic of traditionalists, "relying excessively on texts and underestimating the significance of direct observations." 25
And it is not by chance that Dugin discovers the closest connection between conspiracy theory and"traditionalists". According to him, it was the traditionalists, to whom he refers himself, who were able to clearly express what was veiled in the constructions of conspiracy theorists, namely, the "logic of sacred history", allegedly "subject to the law of degradation"26.
moreover, with unambiguous references to the " Jewish Masons "with references to the"Protocols of the Elders of Zion". In October 1993, the program was closed.
24. On Dugin's tortuous career from "benign fascism" to advising a number of Russian politicians, see: Moroz E. L. Enticing the authorities: the Eurasian Phantom / / Barrier, 2002. N 7. pp. 28-43; Umland, A. (2010) " Alexander Dugin's Transformation from a Lunatic Fringe Figure into a Mainstream Political Publicist, 1980-1998: A Case-Study in the Rise of Late and Post-Soviet Russian Fascism", Journal of Eurasian Studies 1: 144-152.
25. Sedgwick M. Naperekor sovremennomu miru: Traditionalism and secret intellectual history of the XX century. p. 483.
26. Dugin A. G. Konspirology (the science of conspiracies, secret societies and secret war). pp. 24-26. Dugin does not present a Christian, but an esoteric view of the course of history, because it is not about the "end times", but about the end of the "pulsating cycle", which should lead to" reintegration", that is, the emergence of a new Golden Age. For the differences between Christian and esoteric approaches, see: Shnirelman V. A. The end of the world or the beginning of a new cycle? Representations about the end of time in Christianity and esotericism / / Anthropological Forum. 2014. N 23. pp. 140-164.
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Considering the problem of a "world conspiracy", Dugin proceeds from esoteric, conspiracy, or geopolitical concepts. Accordingly, three different schemes are proposed that are difficult to agree with each other. And the surprised reader may be confused, not understanding which version they are asked to follow. But this does not bother Dugin, because he values the irrational approach immeasurably higher than the rational one. He sees his main task in evoking a highly emotional reaction from the reader to the enemy that he will point out to him. The logic of constructions does not play a big role in this case. Much more important is the level of fear caused by one or another presentation of the plot topic. For this purpose, we use exaggerations, conjectures, and distortions of the available information or its meaning. And it is no coincidence that Dugin likes to refer not to scientific developments, but to works of art, which is well in line with Barkan's words about " improvisational millennialism "as a kind of"bricolage" .27
Dugin's first conspiracy experiments were related to the newspaper Den, and then he published several books on this topic. 28 At first, he wrote seriously about the "great war of the continents", but ten years later he called conspiracy theory"the fun science of postmodernism". In the preface to the second edition of the book on conspiracy theory, he quite rightly saw it as a continuation of medieval myths about "dark forces" and" the machinations of the devil", which began to be used outside the strict religious context.29 He spoke of this with irony, defining conspiracy theory as " charming chaos and captivating delirium." But the irony disappeared when it came to presenting conspiracy concepts. Although the author calls his book "the first attempt to analyze conspiracy theory as a sociological phenomenon".
27. Barkun, M. (2003) A Culture of Conspiracy: Apocalyptic Visions in Contemporary America, p. 10.
28. See, for example: Okhotin L. The threat of mondialism // Day. 1991. N 7. P. 3; Dugin A. Introduction to conspiracy theory // Day. 1991. N 14-18; same name. Conspiracy theory (the science of conspiracies, secret societies and occult warfare). Moscow: Arktogeya, 1993. The book was reprinted in an expanded form (parts 2, 3, 4, 5 and the first section of Part 6 were added) as " Conspiracy Theory (the science of conspiracies, secret societies and secret warfare) "(Moscow: Eurasia, 2005). In the new conditions, Dugin was already uncomfortable recalling his occult hobbies, and he made appropriate changes to the name.
29. Dugin A. G. Konspirology (the science of conspiracies, secret societies and secret war), Moscow: Evraziya, 2005, p. 5 (further references are given for this publication).
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and a cultural phenomenon like the conceptual syndrome of postmodernity " 30, instead of analyzing it, the reader found all the same famously twisted conspiracy schemes. After all, Dugin's" positions of factual and historical positivism " do not suit him, because they do not give the desired scope for his exuberant imagination. However, he is right that "excessive and uncritical fascination with conspiracy plots is fraught with intellectual degradation"31. We can only be surprised that he himself does not seek to follow his wise advice. An example is his argument about America as a "Green Land of the Dead", which he linked back in 1989 to the "land of the Apocalypse" and called for "closure" in fulfillment of some "religious duty" 32.
In his book, Dugin gives a whole list of various "conspiracies", including the "Masonic conspiracy", "Jewish conspiracy", "bankers ' conspiracy"," have-nots/Bolsheviks conspiracy"," Mondialist conspiracy "and"sectarian conspiracy". He does not forget to mention such, in his opinion, "outstanding" Russian pre-revolutionary conspiracy theorists as Alexey Shmakov, Alexander Selyaninov, Grigory Shvartz-Bostunich and, of course, Sergey Nilus, but he closely connects them with the "anti-Masonic line" and carefully ignores their inherent anti-Semitism. Moreover, after distancing himself from conspiracy theorists in the introduction and warning against blind trust in their ideas, he further emphasizes the seriousness of"conspiracy science". He argues that it should be "central to modern historical science" because it reveals "sacred truths" and, unlike scientific concepts, it is precisely its views that correspond to the "authentic and authentic tradition" by which Dugin understands religious teachings.33 In other words, what used to be called "esotericism" is now branded as " conspiracy theory."
Dugin even lists the "riddles of Russian history" born of his own imagination and suggests that conspiracy theorists deal with them. It is here that he discovers the reason for his burning interest: it turns out that the meaning of the analysis of conspiracy theories
30. Ibid., p. 10.
31. Ibid., p. 15.
32. Ibid., p. 368.
33. Ibid., pp. 53-54.
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In his opinion, a deep understanding of the essence of modernity requires "competence in the field of metaphysics and Tradition". Science allegedly cannot help in this, while the "world conspiracy" is "the most urgent reality of modern geopolitics."
At the same time, presenting the teachings of a number of well-known conspiracy theorists, Dugin demonstrates their complete lack of any methodology other than "intuition" and "insights". They could interpret the same facts in almost the opposite way and give them arbitrary dates - after all, their "anti-positivist" science did not require any verification. But geographical directions, color symbols, lunar and solar cults, religious doctrines, secret languages, initiations, secret societies were of primary importance, but not the economy, social structure, or actual history. Dugin praised their "genius" and admired their "insights." He himself is devoted to dual constructs and sees the key to any ideas and movements in dividing them into oppositions.35 And he calls all this verbal balancing act " analysis."
"Semites", "Aryans" and "holdover"
Given the role of Jews in popular versions of Apocalypse 36, consider their place in Dugin's theoretical reasoning. Relying on the "Revelation of John the Theologian", he identifies the promised" millennial kingdom "with Russia, where, unlike the West and Byzantium, the coming of the" son of perdition " is somewhat postponed 37. Key role in Christian politics and philosophy
34. Ibid., pp. 126-128.
35. Dugin got the idea of a " struggle between two secret Orders "from the French Freemason Christian Boucher, who came to Moscow in 1993 and was attracted by Dugin to participate in the TV program"Secrets of the Century". For more information, see: Vorobyevsky Yu. Black snow on a white field. Mass idioticism as a high-tech product, Moscow: Tip. "Novosti", 2011, p. 33.
36. Shnirelman V. A. The Danovo Tribe: The Return of religious Antisemitism. Proceedings of the XX International Annual Conference on Judaica, vol. 1. Academic Series. Issue 45. Moscow: Sefer Center, 2013, pp. 159-176.
37. Dugin A. G. Filosofiya politiki [Philosophy of Politics], Moscow: Arktogeya Publ., 2004, pp. 229-232.
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Dugin gives a "catechon", that is, "holding", which protects the world from the Antichrist 38. At first, he declared that the" God-bearing Russian people "or Russia, that is, the" Soviet empire", were"holding back". In 1992, he stated that after the collapse of the latter, the "catechon" lost its power. However, he believed that all this would not last long, for since Russia was supposedly "not of this world," Christ remained her God, and this promised her a speedy ascent.39 Of course, from the Orthodox point of view, all this reasoning was heresy.40
Later, Dugin did not return to them. Instead, he tried to draw a picture of the transition of the Catechon mission from Byzantium to Russia. He said that after the Union of Florence and the fall of Constantinople, Byzantium lost the role of "holding", and the reign of the Antichrist began. Since then, the" chosen kingdom " for a short time became Orthodox Russia, where both an independent state and faith were preserved. And the role of" holding " passed to the Russian tsar. At the same time, associating himself with the Old Believers, Dugin connects the beginning of the "true end of the world" with the Church Council of 1666, when Russia stepped in the direction of a "secular empire", which Dugin interprets as "diabolical obsession" and "metaphysical Russophobia", behind which there were some forces hostile to Russia. After this Council, Holy Russia ended its existence, and the era of apostasy began.41 In other words, for Dugin, the apocalyptic era began in the second half of the 17th century, which supposedly determined the entire subsequent history.42
38. Ibid., p. 223.
39. Dugin A. G. Russia - the birthplace of the Archangel // Day. July 12-18, 1992. p. 5.
40. Bulychev Yu. Y., Afonina V. N. The next false belief or "elementary" Nietzscheanism.Russian Bulletin. 1993. N 2. pp. 8-9; Averyanov V. Priroda russkoy expansii [The nature of Russian Expansion], Moscow: Lepta-Press, 2003, pp. 257-273; Ryabinin V. A. Ideologiya "tysti bezzakoniya"[Ideology of the "secrets of lawlessness"]. Philosophical and political analysis of the ideology of "Mondialism", Moscow: AIRO-XXI, 2009, pp. 108-110, 366.
41. This idea emerged among the Old Believers as early as in the second half of the 17th century and then persisted steadily among some groups of bespopovtsy. See: Guryanova N. S. Peasant anti-monarchical Protest in the Old Believers ' eschatological literature of the period of Late feudalism. Novosibirsk: Nauka Publ., 1988, pp. 19, 33-35.
42. Dugin A. G. " As the number of animals was not fulfilled... "(on the eschatological essence of the Russian split) / / The End of the World (eschatology and tradition), Moscow: Arktogeya, 1997, pp. 50-63.
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Eschatology remains the core of all his ideas. At the turn of 1991-1992, he realized that we were living "at the end of time," and ten years later he realized where the trouble should come from - it turns out that it is the American neoconservatives ("Neocons") who are deliberately leading humanity "into the kingdom of the Antichrist." 43
Dugin finds the essence of world history in the eternal irreconcilable "occult metaphysical war" between Christianity and Judaism. 44 Turning to the texts of the Kabbalistic book " Zohar "(XIII century), he discovers there a conspiracy against not only Christians, but all the peoples of the world, for whom the Jews allegedly prepare a"ritual genocide" 45. Supposedly, this is what should precede the coming of the kingdom of Mashiach. Dugin sees the re-establishment of the State of Israel as a sign of the approaching "end times". According to his calculations, the arrival of the Mashiach should have occurred in 1990. It was Dugin who brought to Russia the rumor about the birth of the "ninth red cow", after which the tenth one should appear, which is destined to become a sacrifice for the Mashiach himself. Allegedly, the Jews will then be allowed to enter the Temple Mount.46
In the early 1990s, Dugin stated that during this period, the struggle between Christianity and Judaism, which simultaneously looks like a struggle between "Aryans" and "Judeo-Masons", should become more acute. He believed that today we are talking about the struggle of two esoteric orders on the eve of the end of the World, when the Jews, with the support of the Vatican, allegedly establish their "new world order", which means a dictatorship over the"Goyim". Dugin saw himself as one of the few defenders of the "solar ideology" that opposed the "Judeo-Masonic" "World Republic." Your reasoning on this
43. Dugin A. G. Konspirology (science of conspiracies, secret societies and secret war). pp. 434-455.
44. Dugin A. G. Krestovy pokhod Solntsa [The Crusade of the Sun] / / Konts Sveta (eschatology and tradition), Moscow: Arktogeya, 1997, pp. 229-230.
45. In fact, Dugin reproduces here a fragment of Father Justin Pranaitis 'accusatory speech at the" Beilis case " trial.
46. Dugin A. G. Messianism of Kabbalah // The End of the World (eschatology and tradition). Moscow: Arktogeya, 1997.pp. 137-156. Information about this came from Jewish fundamentalists who actually claimed to be preparing for the restoration of the Third Temple in Jerusalem. See Wright, L. (1998) " Letter from Jerusalem. Forcing the End", The New Yorker. 20.07.1998, p. 42. For these expectations and aspirations of fundamentalist Jews, see: Ariel, Y. (2002) Philosophemites or Antisemites? Evangelical Christian Attitudes Toward Jews, Judaism, and the State of Israel. Jerusalem: The Hebrew University of Jerusalem.
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he ended the account with an expression of faith in the ultimate victory of the "North" over the "South", that is, "white peoples against Semites". It was no accident that he declared the "Nordic swastika" to be a symbol of both "Aryanism" and Christianity. In this context, it is an indispensable part of the struggle against "Jews" identified with "Semites"47. So Dugin's eschatology turns out to be a cast from the Nazi prototype.48 It remains to be noted that the magazine Elements, published by Dugin in the 1990s, was sympathetic to the German right of the Weimar period and was permeated with eschatological sentiments. Fiercely attacking the liberals, he called them "mondialists" and attributed to them the expectation of the arrival of the Mashiach. The magazine glorified the SS and expressed sympathy for the Nazis, whom the authors, however, scolded for "mistakes"49.
Having included in the book about conspiracy theory his texts, which were created for more than a decade, Dugin shows that he values his work so much that he does not give up any of his thoughts, any of his constructions. But the attentive reader will notice that the author's views change almost with each new book read. However, creating a new concept does not lead to abandoning the old one. For example, after reading a book by the Eurasianist Yakov Bromberg in the mid-1990s, 50 Dugin stopped considering all Jews as "enemies of humanity" and constructed two warring camps out of them - conservative Hasidim, who he saw as allies of the Eurasians, and secular Westerners, who remained enemies for him.51
But this completely contradicts the conspiracy concept he created in 1992, which links all of Judaism without exception with the disastrous "creationism" - because if secular Jews now find themselves outside this tradition, it is precisely because of the fact that they do not believe in it.
47. Dugin A. G. Krestovy pokhod Solntsa [The Crusade of the Sun], pp. 216-244.
48. Indeed, in one of his works, Dugin noted that the "conservative revolution" that he favored differed from National Socialism in its Russophilism and imperial orientation. He found no difference between them in their attitude toward Jews, and this attitude suited him perfectly. See: Dugin A. G. Conservative revolution: time works for "our people" / / Politics. 1991. N 13. P. 10.
49. Lux L. The Third Rome? The Third Reich? The third way? Historical essays on Russia, Germany and the West, Moscow: Moscow Philosophical Foundation, 2002, pp. 276-284.
50. Bromberg Ya. A. The West, Russia and Jewry. Experience in revising the Jewish question. Prague, 1931.
51. Dugin A. G. Evrei i Evraziya [Jews and Eurasia]. 1997. N 47. P. 4.
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Hasidic Jews, i.e." creationists", are presented as "friends". Nevertheless, in the second edition of his book "Conspiracy Theory" Dugin managed to offer the surprised reader some contrasting ideas about Jews, formulated by him in different years. On the one hand, a certain "unified psychotype" was attributed to the "Jews of the Diaspora" there. But on the other hand, the book contained a 1991 article by Dugin, where "Zionism" broke away from the harmful "mondialism", whose supporters portrayed Jews who did not share the ideas of "Zionism" as "local nationalism"52. At the same time, there was an idea that occurred to him in 1996 about the opposition of conservative Hasidim and Western Jews.53 Having given the Hasidic conservatives an "eastern psychological type", he somehow decided that it was from them that the Marxist revolutionaries were recruited.54 And it remains unclear which of these views Dugin himself prefers.
A significant part of the conspiracy theories outlined by Dugin belongs to his favorite traditionalists-esotericists. It is noteworthy that, referring to the views of Alexander Saint-Yves d'Alveidre, Dugin does not say a word about his judophilia. But in the sections devoted to Guenon and Serrano, he describes in detail their Judeophobic constructions, which are associated with the latter's "esoteric Hitlerism". Moreover, if Dugin calls for searching for true facts in the fantastic constructions of Serrano, then he calls Jean Robin's judophilic arguments "voluntaristic". Nor does he mention that some of the Western esoteric conspiracy theorists were members of neo-Nazi organizations, and that Serrano was involved in the Chilean Nazi movement in his youth, and then remained a lifelong Hitler fan and associated with neo-Nazis.55 But in full agreement with conspiracy theory, Dugin identifies "evolution" with "Satanism", and "humanitarian organizations" with " tai-
52. Dugin A. G. Konspirology (science of conspiracies, secret societies and secret war). pp. 334-337.
53. Ibid., pp. 557-558.
54. According to him, he took this idea from Mikhail Agursky. See: Agursky M. Ideology of National Bolshevism. Paris: YMCA-press, 1980. On the fact that the Jews went to the revolution for completely different reasons, see: Deitch L. The role of Jews in the Russian revolutionary movement. Vol. 1. Moscow-L.: GIZ, 1925.
55. Goodrick-Clarke, N. Black Sun. Aryan Cults, Esoteric Nazism and the Politics of Identity, р. 173-192.
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international organizations". Following the example of Western conspiracy theorists, he identifies the "new world order" with liberalism and communism in the community with ... monarchy 56.
Dugin's own method is based on supposedly unchangeable "metaphysical dogmas" and " innate psycho-mental attitudes (psycho-genetic factor)". Therefore, it does not require any empirical research. After all, such a "method" allows you to know everything in advance-it is enough to understand the "transcendental principle" and the truth will be revealed. Dugin is not interested in a particular person, because only "races" and "ethnic groups" are significant, which, in his opinion, are carriers of certain ideologies. It is from this that he deduces the opposite and incompatibility of the "Semitic (lunar) mentality" with its "creationism" and the "Indo-European (solar) worldview "with its "manifestationism"57. Ostensibly, "manifestationism has a monopoly on truth", and "creationism" constantly disputes this and, therefore, relentlessly engages in subversive activities. But in the course of intense "research," Dugin discovers that Orthodoxy is neither "creationism" nor "manifestationism." And the question arises, how does it relate to the desired "truth", but Dugin does not ask himself such a question.
Dugin explains the inconsistencies of this scheme of reality by saying that within each worldview complex there were esoteric organizations of exactly the opposite kind. Why they arose and how they correlated with the complex itself, he is not interested. In other words, the complex speculative scheme built by him is a fantasy of a desk thinker, far from real life. It can't explain anything, and attempts to combine cabinet constructions with actual materials lead to contradictions. So, it remains unclear how the former Jew Paul (with his "creationist attitudes")was he could create an" Aryan in spirit " Christianity. And why did the descendants of the "Aryans" who gravitated to Rome choose the "creationist direction" (Catholicism seems to Dugin "Judaized Christianity"), and their Orthodox descendants - " manifestatio-
56. Dugin A. G. Konspirology (the science of conspiracies, secret societies and secret war). pp. 117-121.
57. Ibid., pp. 155-168. All this is a reproduction of long-known fascist and neo-fascist myths. See: Del Boca, A., Giovana, A. (1969) Fascism Today. A World Survey, p. 86. N.Y.: Pantheon Books.
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nistskoe"? And how could "Kabbalistic Jews" convert to Christianity - did this make them "Aryans"? How did the "psycho-genetic factor" work in these cases? Dugin doesn't have such questions. What is important for him is to prove the alleged confrontation between the creationist " Order of the Dead Head "and the manifestationist" Order of the Living Heart "as" humanistic rationalism "and"emotionality of the heart" 58. He naturally finds himself on the side of the latter. And the story in his presentation looks like an eternal struggle between "Aryans" and "Jews", "manifestationism against creationism, or the solar paradigm against the lunar one". In fact, it is not the story that matters to him, but the myth. That is why he does not disdain fakes such as the notorious chronicle "Hurrah for Linda" by Herman Wirth [59] and fanatically believes in the "polar ancestral homeland of mankind"[60], which is not recognized by any modern scientist.
In his essay "The Order of Elijah", written in 1995 and included in the book "Conspiracy Theory", Dugin revived the idea that the way of life of nomadic Semites and settled Indo-Europeans is supposedly completely opposite (he even uses the term "Indo-European race"!).61. But today it is known that the ancient Indo-Iranians and Iranians (Scythians, Sarmatians) were nomadic pastoralists, and, moreover, the Indo-Aryans who came to India were nomads. Dugin is not interested in all this, since it completely destroys the kind opposition "Semites vs Indo-Europeans", which he extracts from the dusty archives of science of the XIX century. He saw this paradigm as the result of the hard work of his creative thought, although it is a return to the long-overcome ideas of the period when science was still just getting back on its feet and much was unknown.
58. Dugin A. G. Konspirology (the science of conspiracies, secret societies and secret war). pp. 188-193.
59. For this forgery, see Mulot, S. S. (1990) " Wodin, Tunis und Inka. Die Ura-Linda-Chronik", in Gefalscht! Betrug in Politik, Literatur, Wissenschaft, Kunst und Musik, ss. 263-275. Frankfurt am Main: Eichborn Verlag; Erlikhman V. V. Fantastic "Chronicle of Ur Lind" / / Falsification of historical sources and construction of ethnocratic myths. Moscow: IA RAS, 2011. pp. 181-186.
60. For this idea, see Godwin, J. (1993) Arktos. The Polar Myth in Scientifc Symbolism, and Nazi Survival. London: Thames and Hudson; Shnirelman V. A. Aryan myth in the modern world. Moscow: UFO, 2015. Vol. 1. pp. 401-463.
61. Dugin A. G. Konspirology (the science of conspiracies, secret societies and secret war). pp. 220-246.
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Clash of civilizations as the fruit of a conspiracy
Dugin attributed to the" Jews "plans to establish a "new world order", that is, "a Jewish dictatorship over the "Goyim peoples", "which is allegedly the goal of the"Order of the Death's Head". Allegedly, these forces exert the strongest pressure on "Hellenic-Aryan Christianity". Therefore, when he was in the opposition in the 1990s, Dugin said that chaos looks preferable to order, because it expresses the will to resist. He called for a "new crusade", a revolt of the "solar forces" against the "lunar usurpers". He wrote: "It will be a great movement of the forces of the spiritual North against the civilization of the South, a holy war of Crusader Hearts against the 'rational heads' of the Jews and Saracens, a battle to recapture the Holy Land and the Holy Sepulchre from the hands of those who, with their material preferences and claims to national and racial exclusivity, challenge the ethics of Sacrifice and Heroism, the Aryan ethics Love and Loyalty, Purity and Justice " 62. Simply put, if Dugin sometimes corrects his views, one thing remains unchanged - his hatred of liberalism and democracy. Today, he calls for a crusade against the United States and the West, and it is not just an ideological struggle - after all, he declares that in order to win, it is necessary to " erase from the face of the earth the spiritual and physical areas where the world heresy originated."63
It is also noteworthy that of the three most important ideologies identified by Dugin, the "absolutely right" one is closest to him, which includes Nazism, and he ranks Hitler as "historical heroes", "carriers of the abyss of Objectivity". It is no coincidence that Dugin highly honors the father of European neo-fascism, Julius Evola, and treats another Italian neo-fascist, Claudio Mutti, with reverence. It is no coincidence that he worships the swastika as one of the "preferred symbols of the Christian tradition." Finally, he defended racism as "a doctrine that asserts natural, obvious, and ubiquitous inequality in the world."64. But at the same time, the racial principle of " blood is higher."-
62. Ibid., p. 216.
63. Dugin A. G. The fourth way. Introduction to the Fourth Political Theory, Moscow: Academic Project, 2014, p. 101.
64. Dugin A. G. Konspirology (the science of conspiracies, secret societies and secret war). p. 337.
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you "he attributes to the hated "Atlantists". And although today, having made another ideological somersault, he already rejects racism, he still connects it exclusively with the United States and Europe.65
Dugin blames a "conspiracy" for the collapse of the USSR, but this time he applies not an esoteric, but a geopolitical approach, and we are no longer talking about the North against the South, but about the West against the East, 66 "sea civilization" against "land civilization", "Atlanticism" against "Eurasianism". How these two plots can be combined, Dugin does not explain, but accuses the experts of "ignorance". Following some Western conspiracy theorists, he monotonously lists such allegedly conspiratorial "Mondialist" organizations as the Club of Rome, the Council on Foreign Relations, the Bilderberg Club, the Trilateral Commission, etc.67 The center of these organizations is the United States, with its supposedly inherent Russophobia. Dugin deduces the latter from the views of evangelical Christians, who see Americans as the closest relatives and allies of the Israelis, who are terrified of an attack by the "people of Gog"from Russia. 68
It seems that by the time this section was written, i.e. by the end of the 1990s, Dugin had completely forgotten about the confrontation between creationism and manifestationism, "Aryans "and"Semites". After all, the esoteric approach is difficult to link with the geopolitical one, the unity of the" Aryans "cannot be correlated with the split between" Sea "and" Land", and religious conflicts do not correspond well to strict geographical boundaries. Moreover, the universal split between "Sea" and "Land" in Dugin's scheme concerns only the West (the United States and Western Europe) and Eurasia (Russia). Places for other countries and continents are not included in this scheme, and attempts to do so are not allowed.-
65. Dugin A. G. The fourth way. Introduction to the fourth Political Theory, pp. 51-53. On Dugin's own propensity for racism, see: Shnirelman V. A. "Threshold of tolerance": ideology and practice of new racism. Moscow: UFO Publ., 2011, vol. 2, pp. 218-227.
66. For Dugin, these definitions are symbolic rather than geographical, since he sometimes identifies the West with the " North "and unites Eurasia with the"South".
67. Dugin A. G. Konspirology (science of conspiracies, secret societies and secret war). pp. 319-323, 346-351.
68. Ibid., p. 381.
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Gina's attempt to find a place for them reveals the obvious inconsistencies of his reductionist approach.
Nevertheless, it is America that Dugin calls the "Western Antichrist"and predicts an allegedly inevitable clash with Russia, caused by eschatological reasons and Messianic goals. 69 Thus, the idea of the "end of the world" should, in his opinion, determine modern world politics. But at the head of American world politics are the "neo-Cons," that is, a small but influential group of high-ranking Americans of Jewish descent. So Dugin's thoughtful reflections end with the fact that the main "enemies" are once again the Jews, who are preparing the "kingdom of the Antichrist". What he forgets to say is that the vast majority of American Jews do not share the views of the "neo-Cons."
In recent years, Dugin has become interested in Byzantium as the ideal of a "thousand-year Christian kingdom." He emphasizes his commitment to Orthodoxy, but, like Nilus, fills it with mystical content and sees Russia as a "holier-than-thou" ("Holy Russia" turns out to be "the last abode of Catechon"), calling for preparation for the Second Coming of Christ. But, calling himself an adherent of Orthodoxy, he does not intend to expect this with a humble prayer on his lips. He proves that the collapse to which he says liberalism is leading can be avoided by a global conservative revolution.71 In other words, he does not believe in the end of the world, declaring himself a supporter of cyclical development of the world. At the same time, in meetings with his students and followers, Dugin urges them to bring the "end of the world" closer in order to end the modern world.73
What explains the numerous contradictions in Dugin's concept and why, even though they are more than obvious, he himself does not seek to get rid of them? It is hardly necessary to suspect him of not being able to think logically. Rather, the explanation follows:-
69. Ibid., pp. 355-368.
70. Dugin A. G. The Absolute of Byzantium. [http://www.arctogaia.com/public/vizantism.htm, accessed on 1.11.2016].
71. Dugin A. G. The Fourth Way, pp. 18-19.
72. Ibid., p. 41.
73. For more information, see: Guryanov P.Does Dugin want to organize an Apocalypse? // The Essence of Time (Perm Krai). 3.09.2014 [https://gazeta.eot.su/article/ne-hochet-li-dugin-organizovat-apokalipsis, доступ от 1.11.2016].
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The problem is that Dugin is not a scientist, but an ideologue who sees his main task in evoking the desired emotions in the audience, which would direct people to fulfill a given goal. And for this, all means are good - after all, it is not logic that is important, but whipping up fears of others.
In the late 1990s and early 2000s, Dugin was an adviser to State Duma Speaker Gennady Seleznev, in 1999 he headed the Center for Geopolitical Expertise of the Expert Advisory Council on National Security Issues, which was controlled by LDPR leader Vladimir Zhirinovsky, and since March 2012 he has been a member of the Expert Advisory Council under the new State Duma Speaker Sergei Naryshkin.. Obviously, conspiracy theory is in demand among the Russian authorities. Meanwhile, the world of illusions to which Dugin strongly invites the reader is fraught with failures in the international arena if politicians take his recommendations seriously.
Esoteric and conspiracy anti-Semitism in Dugin's concepts is not accidental at all. The literature has already noted the tendency characteristic of the Russian conspiracy school to explain the collapse of the USSR as a "secret conspiracy" and blame it on"international Jewry". In the 1990s, this was one of the most important reasons for the unification of Russian nationalists with communists in the well-known national-patriotic "red-brown" bloc, one of the active participants of which was Dugin with his magazine "Elements". Anti-Semitism was inherent in their "Third Way" ideology76, which was directed against "international financial capital", which allegedly operates in accordance with the Protocols of the Elders of Zion77. Today, being a supporter of the civilizational approach,
74. Shekhovtsov A. Palingenetic project of neo-Eurasianism: ideas of revival in the worldview of Alexander Dugin. pp. 105-126; Engstrom, M. (2014) "Contemporary Russian Messianism and New Russian Foreign Policy", Contemporary Security Policy 35(3): 358-360, 367.
75. Also see Laruelle, M. Russian Eurasianism: an Ideology of Empire, p. 135-138.
76. However, since 2007, Dugin has positioned himself as a supporter of the" Fourth Way", supposedly different from communism, fascism and liberalism. This idea (as well as many other things), he borrowed from Alain de Benoit.
77. Matilov M. Nationalism and Counterculture in post-perestroika Russia // Russkiy nationalizm v politicheskom prostranstve (issledovaniya po nationalizmu v Rossii) [Russian Nationalism in the political space (studies on nationalism in Russia)]. Moscow: Franco-Russian Center for Humanities and Social Sciences, 2007, pp. 87-89.
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Dugin argues that a conflict of civilizations is inevitable 78. Indeed, this leitmotif still permeates almost the entire Russian conspiracy theory, where the Protocols of the Elders of Zion enjoy high authority.
Conclusion
This example shows that, firstly, conspiracy theory actually follows from eschatology and is its modern secularized version, and secondly, because of this, it is constantly engaged in the search for a hidden deadly enemy. But if eschatology requires an indeterminate image of the enemy in the form of certain "dark forces" (although it once found the Antichrist in a specific person, be it Patriarch Nikon, Tsar Peter I or Napoleon), then conspiracy theory requires an image of very specific enemies in the form of racial, ethnic and social groups or individuals. In this context, a special role is given to Jews. In some versions of eschatology, they are loyal companions of the Antichrist and prepare for his coming, which explains the logic of their attributed intentions to eliminate nation-states, cultural traditions, create a world government and introduce a single world religion. All this follows from the logic that the events of the Apocalypse follow.
In conspiracy theory, the figure of the Antichrist is absent, but the idea of the sinister role of the Jews remains. This requires replacing the logic of eschatology with a new one. This is what conspiracy theory is constantly looking for. To do this, it requires an essentialist approach that considers racial and ethnic groups as rigidly limited integral bodies, each of which has not only a special culture, but also a common ideology or a single worldview and has a special mission in the world. In this sense, Jews are attracted by their commitment to Judaism, which some conspiracy theorists try to see as the basis of any of their behavior and explanation of their mission. Moreover, they also view the various branches of Christianity from this point of view, attributing malignity to those that, in their opinion, are in any way close to Judaism. Hence the demonization of Protestants-
78. Neef K. Dugin: In the West, all racists / / Der Spiegel (Germany) 16.07.2014 [http://inosmi.ru/russia/20140716/221706180.html, accessed on 1.11.2016].
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This is typical of Russian eschatology, as well as of Catholicism and the West.
In conspiracy theory, the role of Jews is much more sinister than in eschatology. After all, if in eschatology they look only like helpers of the Antichrist, but can rebel against him and convert to Christianity, then conspiracy theory assigns them an independent role of masters who establish their power over the world and enslave all other peoples. In this context, they themselves look like the collective Antichrist. All the more heroic and attractive is the image of those who oppose this "world evil". In Russian conspiracy theory, the Russian people act in this capacity. Moreover, if in eschatology he or Russia as a whole is identified with "holding", then in conspiracy theory this term disappears, but the function of resistance to "World evil" remains. All this we find in Dugin, whose concepts are significant in that they develop a conspiracy approach, while retaining elements of the former eschatology. After all, many other Russian authors ' elements of eschatology look much more veiled or completely lost.
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